Thesis: Sustainable Residential and Hotel Building Design with Emphesis on Marketable Renewable Energy Production.
Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Saeid Haghir
Received the highest mark in the graduate students, 2018
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University of Tehran
Department of Architectural Engineering
Designing a Sustainable High-Rise Building with Emphasis on Renewable Energy Production by Solar Energy
By
Hamidreza Zarrinkafsh
Under Supervision of Dr. Saed Haghir
A thesis submitted to the Graduate Studies Office in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in
Architecture
Dec, 2018
Since the thesis was written in Persian, the disclosed summary is translated to English:
The environmental impacts of urban areas, as well as social inequality in the uncontrolled rapid urbanization, can be effectively reduced by considering the principles of sustainable architecture and using the smart cities infrastructures. If the tolls of the environmental impact of urbanization and energy consumption continues in the same manner, it will create irreparable consequences for humanity and the nature. Strengthening local cohesion and communication in smart cities can satisfy their own urgent needs such as energy and freshwater, and this can enhance the concept of equality in urban areas, and the injustice inaccessibility to resources will be declined.
This thesis aimed at a comprehension of concepts and meanings of sustainability, especially in energy and the environments and will consider social and economic aspects in the design of high-rise buildings in a sustainable neighbourhood. The methodology combines quantitative and qualitative studies with an innovative interdisciplinary approach and investigates former international research studies and comprehensive studies in the context, international sustainability criteria and certificates, accurate observations, and the study of various types of renewable energies, especially solar energy. However, the most important mission of this thesis is to supply energy from solar energy to fulfil the needs of a newly built neighbourhood to be independent of the city network in terms of energy and water consumption. In addition, selling the surplus generated energy to the city network can be a sustainable income for the building to satisfy the economic criteria of sustainability.
Neighbourhood development is the voluntary participation and assistance and cooperation among the residents of each neighbourhood to improve the physical, social and economic conditions. Therefore, four main dimensions can be identified in the development of neighbourhoods, which are: citizens' actions, voluntary participation, cooperation and problem-solving in the form of cooperation (social capital), empowerment, empowerment, and attention. Proper balance and utilization of the capabilities and capabilities of neighbourhoods and strengthening the cohesion and communication of neighbourhoods the most important mission of this thesis is to provide energy from solar energy.
This thesis developed a new perspective to design a sustainable neighbourhood which is located in the context of the urban area of the most touristic island of the Middle East, and the function of the project is a sustainable hotel and residential building design with an emphasis on marketable power and freshwater production in Qeshm Island.
Since the energy price has the most impressive impact on the economy and energy is the most influential factor affecting other fundamental vectors of a smart city, this master’s thesis focuses on energy equality and generation in urban contexts by an innovative method for energy production by solar energy for a sustainable neighbourhood in an urban context. Decreasing energy generation costs by renewable energy resources can enhance equality in access to opportunities and resources. On the other hand, new technologies can provide energy for the entire building from renewable energy sources, and the surplus generated energy can be sold to the city network to reduce the socio-economic gap. Also, supplying fresh water, which is one of the current problems of the country, can also be achieved with a solar energy-based desalination system.
In this study, the use of solar energy systems and the efficiency of these devices have been assessed. Regarding the solar systems, the optimization of these systems to be reliable and have less uncertainty through climate and weather conditions is based on an innovative low-cost solar concentrator, which was published as a patent by the author. The most important challenge of using standard concave mirrors in sustainable architecture is the high cost of mirrors because of the complexity of the solar tracking system. The task of concave mirrors is to focus the sunlight. Other devices that can focus the light are lenses with a much higher efficiency, but the problem of manufacturing and integrating large-scale lenses making this technology practically less used. This thesis will design, develop and describe the integration of this system into an urban building.
Solar energy is one of the sustainable and carbon-neutral energy sources without contributing to global warming that is the world's most abundant energy resource on the earth. Being responsible for the tremendous amount of CO2 emissions, efficient utilization of renewable energy resources, especially solar energy conversion systems, is increasingly considered. Rising urban densification and uncontrolled urbanization caused around 54% of the world's population to live in cities, which is anticipated to be 66% by 2050. However, integrating solar energy conversion equipment in an urban built environment has many challenges such as the high initial and maintenance costs, uncertainty due to environmental sensitivity, and low efficiency of these systems. New inventions can draw economic ways to empower governments and industries to intentionally use these systems without international agreements' forces to prepare sustainable development.
Despite an enormous amount of solar energy on the Earth (60 to 250 W/m2. y), it is low-density and intermittency, so it needs to be concentrated efficiently to increase heat flux so that the thermodynamic cycle can achieve higher Carnot efficiency under higher temperatures. Solar concentrators can enhance the whole system efficiency for solar-based energy conversion systems (SECS). Diversities of solar concentrators are based on a wide range of parabolic mirrors, lenses, or Fresnel lenses. Despite the progress made in this area, these systems are practically expensive. Assisting electromechanical actuators as solar trackers to intercept a precise orientation to solar and maintenance operations costs and land use can impressively increase total system costs.
While concave mirrors are the most common solar concentrators, the high cost of manufacturing and the sun-tracking system powered by expensive alt azimuth tracking technology, heat loss problems, and the maximum yield of 60% make them unprofitable for urban areas. In this kind of solar collector, the cost is directly influenced by efficiency. The quality of material for the construction of these mirrors and the build precision dramatically influence both efficiency and cost. On the other, the less efficiency, the more land to occupy, which is not suitable for the urban context. Despite this problems, this kind of collectors are more used in the world, especially Parabolic Trough Concentrators (PTC) which are the most usual CSP technologies and the most mature technology and has been commercialized at a reasonable price.
On the other hand, lenses are very close to the ideal concentrator and can be designed to be less sensitive to the environment, but the complex knowledge of making large-scale glassy or Fresnel lenses has been an obstacle to use them in the building sector to supply domestic hot water and heating loads of buildings. The lens performance is comparable to the ideal optical instrument and provides greater reliability at a lower cost. Also, using lenses allows the design of a nearly ideal light collector and is less sensitive to the environment than one with an exposed reflector surface. Lens concentration is the most effective way to make full use of sunlight that will bring a breakthrough of commercial solar energy concentration technology in the near future. This solar collector has higher thermal efficiency at a high-temperature level and is seen as a promising technology due to investment cost savings. Although lenses are more cost-effective, mirrors are more used in power plants, and only 12.9% of power plants are built from lenses. This is because of the problematic manufacturing of lenses on a larger scale.
Fresnel lenses have been introduced for solar applications with usually cheaper initial costs than conventional lenses to tackle the challenge of manufacturing and implementing large-scale lenses. However, most Fresnel lenses suffer from a very limited acceptance angle, typically in the range of 0.5°-10°, which require a high-precision tracking component. Furthermore, achieving both a high concentration ratio and short focal length at the same time is very difficult for a single Fresnel lens.
This thesis aims to fill these knowledge gaps by introducing, developing, validating a new solar concentrator and comparing it to the most common solar concentrator, PTC, in a context of sustainable architecture. In this research, the proposed solar concentrator is a liquid lens that provides the benefits of lenses at an affordable price. Moreover, the underneath greenhouse effect and no need for solar tracking systems provide some advantages over mirrors and typical Fresnel lenses in the urban context.
The main research domain covered by this work concerns:
1. Introduction of CSPs and their advantages by using them alongside other solar energy systems in sustainable architecture.
2. Development of CSPs such as liquid lenses and water lenses for integrating with urban buildings.
3. Validation and computing their output energy, temperature, and performance.
4. Comparison with the former technologies in a wide range of latitudes.
The Thesis is structured as follows:
An introductory section that introduces the context of the study (section 2) and the concentrator systems i.e. parabolic through reflector (section 2.1), and the water lens (section 2.2), which also explains more in detail the design of the water lens (sub-section 2.2.1), output calculation based on physics of light (sub-section 2.2.2), and the generalization for all latitudes (sub-section 2.2.3), and the environmental sensitivity of both concentrators (sub-section 2.2.4); a software selection and simulation for the full ray-tracing solar assessment section (section 3) articulated some sub-sections and defining the workflow for the simulation and validation (sub-section 3.1); a result and discussion section (section 4), where the sustainable buildings are designed based on output energy, temperature, and efficiency of their integrated solar systems (sub-section 4.1); other considerations and the reduced CO2 emissions over a year (sub-section 4.2) are presented and discussed based on statistics and population prediction of the touristic urban context; and finally a conclusions and future developments section which recapitulates the results and the implications of this work (section 5).
Cable-structured solar concentrator does not deny that solar cells are developing and will soon see higher efficiencies, and can employ alongside PVs to concentrate solar energy on these devices to enhance their performance. A few photovoltaic cells can be positioned at the focal point of the solar concentrator to convert solar energy into electricity. This causes a huge reducing the number of very expensive photovoltaic cells and decreasing the whole renewable enegy systems costs to help the economy of projects in the context of sustainable architecture.
Among the medium-temperature solar collectors, parabolic trough collectors (PTC) are the dominant technology available on commercial and industrial scales. This technology was commercialized in the 1970s as a line-focus concentrator that produces high-temperature heat from concentrated solar energy.
PTCs have curved mirrors or reflectors in a parabola shape that concentrate the sun’s rays onto focal lines. At the focal axis of the reflectors, the Heat Collection Element (HCE), also called the receiver, is positioned. The PTC is supported by a constructional frame to keep the reflectors stable and hold the HCE in the focal alignment. The collector's geometry has geometrical relations defined as a parabolic shape. The profile of the collector is defined as: x^2=4yf. In this equation, frepresents the focal length, which determines the location of the heat collection element.
Liquid lenses are a kind of solar concentrator in order to decrease the cost, which contains plastic foil or a glass layer with a Plano-convex lens shape. The main obstacle of using these lenses is complex knowledge of manufacturing on the scale of power-plants. In this research regarding the possibility of designing the linear water lens the shape, dimensions, position, and working fluids of the liquid lens are similar to the aforementioned CSP that allows more straightforward implementation and more cost-effective structure.
In this paper, a simple type of liquid lens containing a transparent layer and a liquid has been proposed to be placed on the rooftop, façade, and ground of the buildings in the urban context. This design represents a promising alternative for developing rooftop concentrators with an appearance similar to parabolic trough reflectors but without the challenges mentioned earlier of PTC systems.
The underneath closed space of the liquid lens can make the greenhouse effect phenomenon to keep the receiver unexposed to the surrounded environment. This greenhouse effect not only can protect and prevent the receiver from wind heat loss but also can save the wasted energy due to abrasions of the lens. It may also save the produced heat during late evenings and nights. Moreover, when direct radiation is low, this phenomenon can make the concentrator like a simple collector and make them productive in high latitude regions, cloudy weather, and winters when other concentrators like PTCs are practically inefficient. In addition, the ability to use Phase Change Materials (PCM) in this closed space can decrease the heat loss of morning preheating and make it efficient in early mornings and late evenings. These advantages are the essential feature of this solar concentrator investigated in this research by comparing the efficiency of this device with former technology.
In addition to the mentioned greenhouse effect, this system does not need any Intercept mechanism and orientation system. Since the focal point of the lens is moving by the sun's movement during a day, it is not needed to move the lens, and just changing the receiver’s position in the path of the focal point is enough to collect sunlight. The remained wasted energy can be collected by the underneath greenhouse effect and the secondary optics, so the only waste of energy is the reflection of sunlight on the water lens surface. Accordingly, the lack of a driver, and electromechanical solar tracking system, although it reduces efficiency very little, cause this solar concentrator to have nearly zero maintenance cost. The fundamental advantages of this type of lenses are:
1. They can enhance the efficiency of solar systems such as PVs and solar thermal technologies.
2. Both the water and the transparent layer are cheap and available everywhere.
3. Not only is the water purified by UV radiation from the sunlight but also most of the solar UV radiation is filtered out by the water and leads to the long-term durability of the plastic foil, Plexiglas, or glass.
4. Their adjustable properties made them flexible for a wide range of applications.
5. Water lenses can be utilized for cooling purposes of solar-based energy conversion systems (SECS) as a water reservoir.
The research methodology is based on numerical data, the physics of light equations for an optical instrument, and software simulation. The monthly solar irradiation, daily temperature, and wind speed over a year based on Typical Meteorological Year were collected, and the hourly solar irradiation in MJ/m2h, and the incidence angle of solar irradiation were calculated by equations of solar declination angle, hour angle, solar azimuth, and altitude.
Because the different angles of collision in a year cause a variety of radiation percentages, the efficiency of the system is evaluated annually. The light has 4 interaction when goes into a liquid environment: Diffraction, Reflection, Absorption, Refraction
When the incident light comes to the liquid lens, after decreasing the reflected portion, the remaining amount of the light entering the liquid will be dispersed and absorbed in the liquid, and the rest of it will be passed through the liquid to be concentrated in the focal point. Therefore, the overall efficiency of the liquid lens is the portion of the light that is concentrated at the focal point to the total amount of incident light entering the concentrator in the period of one year.
The optical efficiency of a lens is defined by the fraction of radiant power at its input aperture which reaches its output .
To evaluate the efficiency of the liquid lens and the concaved mirror, the amount of collected light at the focal point of each concentrator should be calculated by simulating the sun movement over a year to obtain the incident angle. The formulas for calculating incident angel has shown below.
Cos β = Sin δ. Sinθ .Cos s – .Sinωϒ.Cosω+Cosϒ.Sin.Cos.Sins.Cosω + Cosδ.Sinθ.Cossθ.Sins.Cosϒ+ Cosδ.CosθCos.Sinδ-Coss.Sinθ [1]
The equation [1] could simplify to [2] for horizontal surface:
Cosβz=Sinδ.Sinθ +Cosδ.Cosθ.Cosω [2]
Where β is incident angle, ϒ is the solar azimuth, s is the slop angle, δ is the solar declination, ω is the hour angle, and θ is the latitude. The solar declination angle δ can be calculated by the following formula.
δ =23.45 sin(360/365.(284 + n)) [3]
To calculate the hour-angle ω the following equations can be used [[i]]:
ω = ± 0.25(minutes) [4]
Where minutes is the number of minutes from solar noon. The solar azimuth angle ϒ, which is the height of the sun can be obtained by this formula:
Sin ϒ = [5]
Where α is the solar altitude as describe following.
Sin α = Sinδ .Sinθ + Cosδ .Cosθ .Cos ω [6]
The Latitude θ is the angle between the equatorial plane and the radius to that point. The equation [2] can calculate the incident angel, and after decreasing the amount of reflection, the amount of incident could be calculated. Considering the equation above for simplifying the calculation, every month's middle day Solar calendar will be assumed. After precious calculation of the incident angle, the reflection percentage should be calculated. The reflection of light that the equations predict is known as Fresnel reflection. When light moves from a medium of a given refractive index, n1, into a second medium with refractive index, n2, both reflection and refraction of the light may occur. The Fresnel equations describe what fraction of the light is reflected, which is given by the reflectance or reflectivity, R, and what fraction is refracted (i.e., transmitted) given by the transmittance or transmissivity, T.
[7]
While the reflectance for p-polarized light is:
[8]
If the incident light is unpolarised (containing an equal mix of s and p polarisations), the reflectance is:
[9]
Where θi is incident angle βz is the incident angel on a horizontal surface that calculated (2) equation and described in table 5 and θt describes as Snell's law (also known as Snell–Descartes law and the law of refraction). For clear water, which is filled in this research's water lens, n2 is around 1.333.
When the light goes across the water, part of it reflects that can be calculated by equation [9]. The remaining amount of it absorbs or scatters that called light attenuation
Absorption + Scattering = Light attenuation
The amount of light attenuation is shown with the extinction coefficient. Extinction coefficient refers to several different measures of the absorption of the light in a medium:
= [10]
Where is irradiation intensity in the height of z and is irradiation intensity just below the water surface, K is attenuation coefficient. As pure water does not absorb UV (only scatters it), the attenuation coefficient is 0.02 that corresponds with the reality. As it mentioned, the line equation of both collectors are
and the diameter is 1m, so the height of water z for any point on the water lens is different. To simplify the calculation, the centroid of the object, which is the intersection of the hyperplane that divides the height into two parts of equal moment, has been considered the representative height. The ȳ of centroid point of this parabolic shape is and the height is 25 cm, so ȳ = 15 cm.
Figure 6 shows a 3D scatter chart plot of the monthly efficiency and solar irradiation of the water lens. As it is illuminated in this graph, the efficiency is higher in the period of April to August. At other times of the year, solar irradiation is not sufficient, and solar heating cannot supply domestic hot water and heating loads of buildings
Figure 6 shows the monthly efficiency and annual radiation and efficiency relationship.
The structural drawings of this technology which can be made on the various scales are shown below
This project intended to design a hotel and residential building on a 13.5-hectare land on the southeast coast of Qeshm Island using a time-sharing hotel and residential hotel to meet the island's needs for housing shortages and lack of space for temporary accommodation for tourists and those In the free trade zone they work seasonally and mostly involve traders and engineers.
Talking to Mr. Darakhti, the mayor of Qeshm, at the time of drying this land, we realized that this land, which used to be a port, which has become shallow due to falling sea water and has lost its use, has become a land that covers an area Qeshm Island has been added and is located in a relatively prosperous place of this island and has a good view of the neighboring islands of Qeshm Island.
To evaluate the required energy of this sustainable touristic neighbourhood the project developed a framework for assessing the required solar energy to design the required solar system based on needs. The framework was based on:
1. The annual temperature of cities.
2. Household and population of cities by resident and non-resident: November 2016
3. Population by type of household, sex and city
4. Immigrants arrived during the last 5 years according to the last previous residence and the city of the current residence
5. Capacity of installed generators and GDP of power plants under the Ministry of Energy in terms of regional electricity companies, large industries and the private sector
6. Number of types of electricity subscribers
7. Amount of electricity sales depending on the type of consumption in MWh
The active and passive solar systems that was employed in this project has bee shown in the following figure:
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